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Insecticides:   These are substances that are used to kill insects.  Pesticides:   It is a general term that includes  insecticides, fungicides rodenticides, herbicides,  disinfectants, repellents, and other chemicals used for the  control of pests. Insecticides are classified into 3 groups: Contact  poisons, Stomach poisons and Fumigants.  CONTACT  POISONS: These are those insecticides that kill insects primarily by contact  e.g., pyrethrum, DDT, HCH, dieldrin.  STOMACH POISONS: These  are those insecticides which when ingested cause the death of the  insects, e.g., Paris green, sodium fluoride.  FUMIGANTS: These are  those insecticides that give off vapours that have a lethal effect on  the insects, e.g., sulphur dioxide. 1. DDT  (Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) :  It was first  synthesized in 1874, by a German chemist, Ziedler . I ts insecticidal properties were discovered by the Swis...

  Sandflies: Sandflies are nocturnal pests & their bites are irritating and painful. It lives in holes &  crevices in walls, trees, etc. Important species are P. argentipes, P. papatasii, P. sergenti, and S. punjabensis. 1. Eggs: Important points: Laid in damp, dark places in the vicinity of cattle sheds & poultry. Comparatively large, torpedo-shaped with longitudinal wavy lines on the outside. Size : 0.3-0.5 mm long and 0.1-0.15 mm wide. Color : white when freshly deposited to brown or black. Deposited singularly or in clusters. Eggs hatch within 7 days. 2. Larva: Important points: These are hairy maggots with a distinct head, thorax & abdomen. The last abdominal segment carries 2 pairs of long stout hairs. One pair is remarkably long. It feeds on decaying organic matter. Becomes a pupa in about 2 weeks. 3. Pupa: Important points: It lasts for about a week. Newly formed sand fly pupae are white, turning yellow, and finally almost black before adult emerg...

1. Environmental control: Important points: The best way to control houseflies is to eliminate their breeding places & environmental sanitation. A clean house with clean surroundings is the best answer to the fly problem. Storing garbage, kitchen wastes, and other refuse in bins with tight lids, pending disposal. Efficient collection, removal & disposal of refuse by incineration, composting & sanitary landfill. Provision of Sanitary latrines, e.g, pit privies, septic tanks, water-seal latrines & sanitary system. Stopping open-air defecation. Sanitary disposal of animal excreta. Stepping up general sanitation.  2. Insecticidal control: Important points: Insecticides are only a supplement, but not a substitute for sanitation. (i) Residual sprays: It showed resistance to DDT in 1948 & also developed resistance to other organochlorines, organophosphorus, and carbamate pesticides. Susceptible flies may be killed by DDT (5%), methoxychlor (5%), lindane (0.5%), or chlo...

The integrated approach of mosquito control: This is an approach that avoids the excessive use of any one method (e.g insecticides) but tries to combine one or more methods with a view to obtain maximum results with minimum inputs and also to prevent environmental pollution with toxic chemicals & development of insecticide resistance. The various methods of mosquito control are as follows: 1. Anti- Larval Measures: (a) Environmental Control: Important Points: Source reduction : Mainly the elimination of mosquito breeding places by minor engineering methods such as  Filling- of cesspools & open ditches and arrangement for adequate collection, removal, and disposal of sewage & wastewater. Leveling & getting rid of water-holding containers such as discarded tins, empty pots, broken bottles, coconut shells, etc. Drainage of breeding places, and  Water management (e.g intermittent irrigation) & removal of aquatic plants or destruction by herbicides. Rendering th...

 As per “Bio-medical Waste Management Rules, 2016”  1. Yellow Bin/ Bag: Type of Bag/  Container used:  Non-chlorinated  plastic bags Type of Waste:  1. Human Anatomical Waste A. Tissues, organs, body parts B. Foetus, Umbilical stump, placenta 2. Animal Anatomical Waste:  Tissues, Organs, body parts 3. Soiled Waste:  items contaminated with blood and body fluids A. Dressings, sponges, gauze B. Plaster casts C. Cotton swabs D. Blood bags E. Infected gowns, mask, shoe covers, cap 4.  Expired or Discarded  Medicines:   including antibiotics (except cytotoxic) 5. Chemical Waste: A. Discarded disinfectants, Cleaning agents B. X-ray film developing liquid, Infected secretions C. Aspirated body fluids, Liquid from laboratories 6. Microbiology, Biotechnology, and other clinical  lab waste 7. Chemical Liquid Waste Yellow bin/ bag with the cytotoxic label: 1. Used, discarded, and expired cytotoxic drugs whether in plastic vaccutainers, sy...